Literary and Poetic Devices Commonly Found in Whitman

1.       Free verse – Most poetry we know of rhymes and has a certain rhythm to it. Yet free verse shakes off the strict rules of rhyme and meter and follows with the more natural rhythms of language. Free verse can be liberating in one sense because the poet is not required to come up with a certain number of syllables per line or a rhyming pattern. Others may argue that free verse is “easier” than forcing oneself to follow rules. Because poets can choose free verse, it is interesting to notice whether the topic or theme of a poem makes a natural match for free verse. If you think a poem is using free verse, look for clues for something that has “no boundaries.” As the spider releases its filament in “A Noiseless Patient Spider” it makes sense that the open expanse of space in the poem matches the free verse style. A strict rhyme scheme or meter would seem to place boundaries on the spider and on Whitman’s theme. Use of free verse might not make sense if the topic is something concrete and specific.

2.       Assonance – When a poet uses vowels, we must pay attention to not only the sound that is produced, but also the shape of the mouth when making the sound. We cannot always see assonance on the page, because different letters and letter combinations can produce identical or similar sounds. To discover true assonance, a poem must be read aloud. When we discover the presence of assonance, we must ask what its purpose may be. For example: Is an emotion given away by the shape the mouth makes when the sound is made? When the sound “ee” is repeated, it makes our mouth form the shape of either a smile or a grimace. Is the poem relating joy? Is the poem relating pain?

3.       Euphony – This one is quite difficult to discover, and it is perhaps the most subjective of the devices found in Whitman. What one person thinks sounds melodious another may find unappealing, but there are some conclusions to be made nevertheless: consonants tend to be more harsh than vowels, and some consonants are harsher than others. Consider the explosive nature of “b” “t” “p” and “d” versus the softer, more sibilant sound of “s” “f” and “v.” You can also get an idea of euphony based on what your mouth does when you say the words. The greater the contrast between harsh and soft sounds, the less likely the line will be considered euphonic, whereas a nice balance can also indicate an overall harmony between light and dark, life and death, sharp and soft.

4.       End-stopped vs. Enjambment – This contrast is most useful when you consider that end-stopped lines could indicate abruptness or a figurative ending then starting again. A dramatic form of end-stop can be found in “Beat! Beat! Drums!” where the concept of drums beating insinuates abrupt starts and stops, just line the lines. Enjambment, on the other hand, points to an endless cycle, or at the very least some kind of overlapping or a sense of one thing leading into another. When noticing enjambment, read the punctuation without taking a breath at the end of lines and see how much wind must escape to complete sentences – Are you supposed to be breathless when you consider the poem’s subject? Is there a sense of desperation that leaves you trying to take in more air? Lack of punctuation can leave the reader wondering how lines should be read, and where pauses should be made. This may be the artist’s very point: By placing punctuation among the words, I (the Poet) remove the reader’s ability to make their own endless interpretations. By purposefully placing punctuation and controlling where lines end and begin, I more carefully control the reader’s experience.

5.       Catalog verse or catalog technique (cataloguing) – Whitman’s background in journalism made him a keen observer of his surroundings, so it is only natural that he incorporated this skill into his poetry. Key aspects of Whitman’s cataloguing to remember are these: Although Whitman can only give us one man’s view, he considered himself a kind of “master voice,” meaning that he believed he did not just speak for himself, but for others as well. Still, he chose what images to give us, and collectively those images give us a broader picture. When observing the catalog of observed items, one must look not only at the snapshots but the entire photo album as a whole. In “I Hear America Singing” Whitman purposely chose the broad array of laborers to paint a picture of a multi-talented, strong, hard-working America that had promise as a result of the collective work of individuals radically different. By creating a picture through the device of cataloging, the poet invites you to stand within his/her created world. The image you have is more carefully constructed with each additional catalogued item. This is especially important when Whitman is working on his idea that we are all somehow connected. In “Crossing Brooklyn Ferry” his observations invite us to paint a picture of the crossing with his help, even if we are not there. When he explicitly tells us we are there with him and he with us, it is true due to his mastery of the composite image.

6.       Motif - A repeated word and its connotations (like “sing” and chant, melody, harmony, chorus, chorale, mouth, hear) indicate the presence of a motif. In “I Hear America Singing” the motif of song presents itself strongly. Similar to investigating all devices, it is more important to note how the motif plays a role in the power of the poem. With regard to “I Hear America Singing” the motif of song unites all of the workers, reflecting Whitman’s optimism regarding the rise of a unified America where those of different talents come together in a massive chorus.

7.       Image and imagery – If an image is an expression of a literal sensation such as seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, or smelling, then imagery must also by definition address any of the senses. It is easy to think of imagery with regard to sight alone, but remember that any expression that addresses any of the senses can be considered imagery, and for that reason we need to pay attention to all senses, not just the visual image. In Whitman, his cataloging gives us dramatic landscapes, but we must also be on the lookout for sounds and touch. Even the title “As I Lay with My Head in Your Lap, Comerado” insinuates the sense of touch. The line “The glisten of the little steel instruments catching the glint of the torches” from “A March in the Ranks, Hard-Prest” combines consonance and imagery. The consonance can be found in the repetition of “t” “s” and “l.” The imagery addresses sight - we can see the multiple metal instruments reflecting the flickering flame. The word “glisten” allows us to see they are not dull, and perhaps wet with blood or water. They are “little,” and that might result in us seeing many aligned or lying atop one another. It is the sound of the words that gives us the imagery related to hearing. The alliteration allows us to hear the clink of the instruments as they are retrieved, utilized and replaced. We hear the “ts” of metal clacking against metal. One might go so far as to say the line addresses taste with all the effort the tongue has to make the “t” “s” and “l” sounds. We can feel the intensity of the physicians as their tongues press against the back of their teeth – the smell of blood in the air attacks the mouth, and perhaps leaves us parched like the marching soldiers headed for their unknown fate.

8.       Structure – Structure can be found in many areas of poetry, not the least of which is the look of the words on the page. In “O Captain! My Captain!” Whitman crafts the poem so that each of the stanzas looks alike. What could that shape suggest? Is each stanza supposed to give us the shape of something we could see in real life? Is the shape of each stanza merely suggestive of an idea? One idea is that the stanzas look like the profile of a boat out of the water, with the keel or rudder mechanism reaching below the hull. This would make sense when reading the first stanza, when Whitman refers to the keel, or steadying mechanism of the ship. Another component of structure can be the organization of stanzas, as in “Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking” where long stanzas are interspersed with shorter ones to reflect the ebb and flow of the “mother-ocean.” Within stanzas structure can be found at the word level. (See “Metre.”) Structure can also play with time or speaker. Consider once again “Cradle”: The Poet recalls and intersperses the songs of the male-bird, revealing a back-and-forth between the Poet’s recollection and the boy’s interpretation of the chant. At times, stanzas can jump to different times. Is the future given more attention than the past? What is the balance? The Poet in “Cradle” recalls  the past, but this past was integral to the future, when the poet emerged from the cradle.

9.       Metre (or Meter) – Refers to the rhythm of verse. With regard to metre and Whitman, know the difference between falling metre and rising metre. Because of his fascination with the sea, we can often see the use of specific words giving us the indication of rising and falling waves or emotions. This also could relate to any contrast such as life and death, black and white, victory and defeat.

·         Falling metre: trochees and dactyls, i.e., a stressed syllable followed by one or two unstressed syllables.

·         Rising metre: iambs and anapests, i.e., one or two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed one.

When we read individual lines aloud, we should carefully listen for the stresses in the syllables of words. The word “enjoyment” is unstressed-stressed-unstressed, but you wouldn’t know if you didn’t read it aloud. A skipping sensation with a series of iambic words might indicate excitement or urgency, for example, because the pattern sounds like someone skipping.

10.   Repetition – Can be found at the smallest level in a specific sound, in which case repetition is assonance, consonance, or alliteration. At times a single sound can give away a mood, such as the mourning tone found in the repetition of the “O” in “When Lilacs Last in the Door-Yard Bloom’d”. When we learn that this poem laments the loss of President Lincoln, we understand that Whitman’s repeated use of the “O” and “ou” in “soul” sounds similar to the moaning that might arise from the news of the death of a loved one or at a funeral. It also might relate to the word “NO” in that moment of denial when we hear that someone is gone forever.

O powerful, western, fallen star!

O shades of night! O moody, tearful night!

O great star disappear’d! O the black murk that hides the star!

O cruel hands that hold me powerless! O helpless soul of me!

O harsh surrounding cloud, that will not free my soul!

Repetition can occur with a sound, word, phrase, sentence, or even idea. For a repeated word and its connotations, see “motif.” Each stanza in “Beat! Beat! Drums!” begins with the same first line: a string of commands to the drums and bugles. The repetition is appropriate, as the poem reflects the relentless onslaught of war and the instruments that announce its presence, mustering young men to fight. Even in the third stanza, Whitman writes to the drums and bugles, “Make no parley – stop for no expostulation”, further emphasizing the repeating, unceasing nature of the drums and bugles.

11.   Careful diction – We all know poets agonize over selecting just the right word – but why? At times, the meaning of an entire poem can hinge on one word. Consider Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Raven” and the repetition of the word “nevermore” that emphasizes the tangible loss of the tortured man’s love. After reading “metre” you should notice that a poet may want to select a specific word in order to control where stresses appear in a line. Whitman is less concerned with selecting words to fit within a certain mold or set structure. He selects words to suit his purpose, not to fit a certain poetic frame. Diction with regard to Whitman must be investigated with regard to connotation, which is the underlying or suggested meaning of a word, not just its literal meaning or definition. For example, an ivory wedding dress carries different connotations than a white wedding dress, as ivory is not usually pure white, but is a white-yellow, and if one looks closely, small cracks are apparent. Still, ivory is quite valuable, so a connotation of wealth could be argued. In “Cradle” there is a string of prepositions at the start: Out, from, through. All three relate to the birth of the Poet. He is out of the womb. He came from the warmth of the home. He came through the birth canal. In addition his epiphany came through the voice of the sea.

12.Symbol – When reading Whitman, especially his poems that deal with natural elements, it is essential to be familiar with general symbols. For example, the sun is generally seen as a life force that gives heat and energy. It is also a great light that might indicate great knowledge or understanding. However, it is not a symbol to be taken lightly, as the mythological figure Icarus, flying with his father’s wax wings, flew too close to the sun and fell to his death. Rising sun? Bright future. Falling sun? An ending is near. Birds indicate freedom through their ability to fly, and their freedom is reflected in the joy of their songs. Light is representative of knowledge while darkness represents ignorance as well as evil, foreboding, and danger. Plants all grow, and if they are green that is an indication of health and reproduction, much like anything that takes place in the springtime. However, autumn or fall represents a regression or death, and winter is that time of year that represents sleep or death. Likewise, cold is generally associated with death (think of a corpse) while heat is associated with life, which is why when we read about intense heat in humans we are to take that their passion is allowing them to live life to the fullest. Rain usually is found where cleansing is needed, much like water in baptism cleanses us from sin and aligns us with the chosen of God. Now that we are back to weather, sun suggests happiness, rain sadness, and clouds despair, unless of course they are parting to reveal the sun, in which case things are looking up! Why would Whitman title his poetry collection “Leaves of Grass”? Why grass?